Susan Strange's Work

This page contains the searchable annotated bibliography of all of Susan Strange’s academic writing. Edited by Christopher May, Randall Germain, and J.E. Spence Reprinted with permission. To download the annotated bibliography as a PDF, click here

For copyright reasons, this site does not host any of Strange’s work, or of Strange-influenced work. Where available, we have provided links to external sites that host these works.

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Sterling and British Policy

Strange, Susan. London: Oxford University Press, 1971.

Strange proposes a four element theoretical framework for international currencies in the international political economy: Neutral currencies; Top currencies; Master Currencies; and Negotiated currencies, where each category exhibits certain economic and political characteristics. A currency may display more than one set of characteristics but will belong predominantly to one category. She then goes on to discuss the development of the international political economy in light of the decline of sterling and the rise of the dollar. The discussion of the sectoral implications for Britain is firmly placed in its international political context, prefiguring Strange’s later argument that sectoral analysis should precede general analysis of the international political economy.

Keywords: Money and Finance; Political Economy; Theory; United Kingdom

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Money and Finance, Political Economy, Theory, United Kingdom, 1970's
Source and Medium: Book

Year of Publication: 1971

Sterling and British Policy: A Political View

Strange, Susan. International Affairs 47, no. 2 (1971): 302-315.

Strange sets the decline of sterling and the rise of the dollar in the context of international politics. She stresses the need to integrate economic studies with those of international relations. Both state behaviour and the behaviour of international society, hitherto interpreted in terms of power and politics should now be extended to take in the monetary factor especially in the light of economic interdependence - the monetary factor is bound to become increasingly important in understanding state behaviour. These views are then developed in Sterling and British Policy (1971) while the importance of monetary factors is a theme which underlies all of her subsequent work.

Keywords: Money and Finance; United Kingdom; Interdependence

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Money and Finance, United Kingdom, 1970's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1971

The United Nations and International Economic Relations

Strange, Susan. In The Evolving United Nations: A Prospect for Peace?, edited by Kenneth J. Twichet, 100-119. London: Europa Publications for the David Davies Memorial Institute of International Studies, 1971.

Contrasting a Unitarian ('one-world') or egalitarian vision of the United Nations mission with a reformist position, Strange argues that despite some early hopes that the UN might remake the global economy, its subsequent history has revealed it to be largely powerless over much of international economic relations. Where it has been able to influence the international economy this has been through symbolic actions rather than by direct intervention. Here, Strange stresses the political embeddedness of international markets, and relates the inability of the UN to intervene to the lack of any overarching international political authority, either represented by the UN or other international organisations.

Keywords: Political Economy; United Nations; International Economics

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Kenneth J. Twitchet
Keywords: Political Economy, 1970's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1971

International Economics and International Relations: a Case of Mutual Neglect

Strange, Susan. International Affairs 46, no. 2 (1970): 304-315.

Strange’s first call for the development of International Political Economy as a separate discipline. She identifies a major void between the academic study of international relations and the study of international economics. The failure to fill this void will result in a loss of relevance for the subjects and an inability to deal with the major problems that beset the international economy. This will also lead to the inability to analyse the two main tendencies in the international economic system; growing international co-operation and organisation, and increased domestic defensiveness over national welfare issues. Only by introducing economics into International Relations courses, and politics into International Economics courses could these shortcomings be addressed. Reprinted in: Authority and Markets: Susan Strange’s Writings on International Political Economy, edited by Roger Tooze and Christopher May. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.

Keywords: Political Economy; Theory; Foundational Work; International Relations; International Economics

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Political Economy, Theory, Foundational Work, 1970's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1970

International Money Matters

Strange, Susan. International Affairs 46, no. 4 (1970): 737-743.

Strange uses a survey of a number of recent textbooks (and other writing) on international economics to criticise the economics profession as a whole for taking too little account of politics. Most economists are satisfied with international growth and rising ‘efficiency’ she argues without ever asking questions regarding the evident inequalities in the intentional economy or the political dimensions of the uneven growth between countries. These criticisms were instrumental in her call in other writing around this time for the establishment of a discipline of International Political Economy.

Keywords: Money and Finance; Political Economy

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Money and Finance, Political Economy, 1970's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1970

The Politics of International Currencies

Strange, Susan. World Politics 23, no. 2 (1970): 215-231.

Here Strange argues that because of interdependence states are not so much defenders of national territories or peoples but of national currencies and monetary systems. Conflict can be caused by one monetary system damaging another. The expansion of the international economy requires more and more sophisticated and complex monetary and financial arrangements and the forms of association among them. Strange starts to map out a political theory of international currencies which is developed in Sterling and British Policy (1971).

Keywords: Money and Finance; Political Economy

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Money and Finance, Political Economy, 1970's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1970

The Meaning of Multilateral Surveillance

Strange, Susan. In International Organisation: World Politics: Studies in Economic and Social Agencies, edited by Robert W. Cox, 231-247. London: Macmillan, 1969.

Taking the relationship between debtor and creditor countries as her starting point Strange argues that multilateral surveillance is not as draconian as it is presented. She notes that military expenditure is seldom included in the requests for debtor country adjustments. Despite the international economic organisations’ role, states were still able to manipulate their creditors through political pressures. Interestingly, Strange notes with great prescience that while at the time states could still play this role, with the continuing internationalisation of money markets (and the emergent technologies that made such developments possible), this would in the future present a strategic problem for states’ governments. The approach she favoured was for the reduction of indebtedness to be borne not by the deficit countries but rather by the surplus countries. That is, the solution to the debt crisis was not more adjustment in the ‘Third World’, but was some form of debt forgiveness.

Keywords: International Institutions, Money and Finance

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Robert W. Cox
Keywords: International Institutions, Money and Finance, 1960's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1969

Research on International Organisation

Strange, Susan, Geoffrey Goodwin. Research on International Organisation (Social Science Research Council Review of Current Research: 2). London: Heinemann Educational, for the Social Sciences Research Council, 1968.

Acting as a rapporteur for the SSRC Advisory Group on International Organisation (chaired by Goodwin), Strange maps out current and future research as well as examining its organisation and administration. Though published two year prior to Strange’s first call for the establishment of International Political Economy, in 'International economics and international relations: a case of mutual neglect' (1970), this report on the discussion of research into international organisation and international relations reveals many themes (from the impact of structure and technology to the importance of international economics) she would develop in her own work.

Keywords: Knowledge; Political Economy; Theory; International Economics

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Geoffry Goodwin
Keywords: Knowledge, Political Economy, Theory, 1960's
Source and Medium: Report

Year of Publication: 1968

Debts, Defaulters, and Development

Strange, Susan. International Affairs 43, no. 3 (1967): 516-529.

Strange suggests that problems of national debt default have not been solved, merely suppressed by the expansion of credit provision. Developing states dependence on ‘supplier credit’, and frequent rescheduling of other debts will lead to eventual wide-spread default unless action is taken. She suggests that: principles governing international loans should be established; these ‘rules’ should be applied through aid-agencies and other international bodies; technical assistance to finance ministries should be available from multilateral institutions (the World Bank, possibly) to ensure states understand their fiscal position and their options. Strange argues that these measures are necessary to forestall a return to the nineteenth century policies of forced intervention, or economic ostracisation of developing states. Strange identifies the centrality of finance to international relations - a central theme of all her subsequent work.

Keywords: International Institutions; Money and Finance

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: International Institutions, Money and Finance, 1960's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1967

The Sterling Problem and the Six

Strange, Susan. London: Chatham House/PEP, 1967.

In this small pamphlet Strange analyses the twin roles of sterling in the international economy - that of reserve currency and of vehicle currency (in which transactions are carried out), in a precursor to her typology of currencies in Sterling and British Policy (1971). She argues that while the City has benefited from the expansion of the ‘Euro-currency’ markets, in its ‘middleman’ role, this has led to a number of problems for sterling both in the wider context of the international economy and, more specifically, the context of the emerging European Community. Sterling had become more vulnerable to changes elsewhere. She is sceptical about the possibility of Britain enjoying any financial benefit from joining the ‘six’, noting that the CAP payments and the IMF repayments together would form an unendurable strain on the exchequer.

Keywords: Europe; Money and Finance; United Kingdom; European Integration

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Europe, Money and Finance, United Kingdom, 1960's
Source and Medium: Book

Year of Publication: 1967

The Sterling Question

Strange, Susan. In Britain and the Common Market, edited by Anthony Moncrieff, 43-50. London, BBC, 1967.

In this text of a radio talk first broadcast on 19th February 1967, Strange summarises the arguments she made in The Sterling Problem and the Six (1967). Discussing the links between Britain and the European Community, she examines the international position of sterling in a time of monetary crisis. Noting both the lack of reserves held by the British government and Britain’s extra-European financial commitments, Strange argues that de Gaulle may be correct in thinking it is impossible for Britain to act ‘like good Europeans’. Thus, one proposed solution to the sterling problem, monetary association with Europe, would have little support on the Continent. Strange finally focuses on the British government’s economic philosophy and its lack of political will as the key problems; issues she would return to frequently, not least of all in her later criticisms of American foreign economic policy.

Keywords: Europe; Money and Finance; European Integration

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Anthony Moncrieff
Keywords: Europe, Money and Finance, 1960's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1967

A New Look at Trade and Aid

Strange, Susan. International Affairs 42, no. 1 (1966): 61-73.

In the light of UNCTAD’s problems, declining optimism over foreign aid and the unfavourable terms of trade for developing states, Strange suggests that ‘Prebisch’s thesis’, allowing subsidised exporting by developing states, and the dropping of tariff barriers, while unpopular would be a useful way forward. She suggests an ‘import bounty’ system, to diffuse opposition, paid for through a tax on developed states domestic and exporting manufacturers. While encouraging industry in developing states, instead of commodity exports, this would reduce the ‘loading of the dice’ identified by G77. Even if not achievable multilaterally, bilateral implementation would help revive help to the developing world and help developed state’s industry to revive through competition. Strange posits the structural problems of international trade, while suggesting the way forward through a combination of economics and politics. Reprinted in: Authority and Markets: Susan Strange’s Writings on International Political Economy, edited by Roger Tooze and Christopher May. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.

Keywords: Production; Trade; Economic Development

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Production, Trade, 1960's, Susan Strange
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1966

Cuba and After

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1963, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 1-28. London: Stevens, 1963.

Resisting the prevailing 'informed' analysis that the Cuban Missile Crisis was more an apparent danger than a real one, Strange sides with the 'man in the street' to argue it was a very real moment of possible war and as such profoundly affected the US system of alliances. However, she also suggests that the immediate aftermath appears to have been a retreat into détente, rather than renewed confrontation. She then turns to survey the impact of the crisis on the various strands of the Western alliance(s), and concludes that the inability of Britain to choose between America and Europe is as much a product of an American inability to decide whether it is serious about an Atlantic Union or not. Interestingly as in her later work, Strange was concerned about the manner in which the US was a hegemonic power and the problem of political will when it was threatened outside its traditional regional sphere of domination, or by the needs of multilateralism in the international system.

Keywords: Hegemony; Security; United States; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Hegemony, Security, United States, 1960's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1963

Changing Trends in World Trade

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1962, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 139-158. London: Stevens, 1962.

Here Strange notes that since 1945 although manufacturing growth has accelerated expanding the trade between developed states there has been less growth in the demand for raw materials and agricultural goods. This distorted or uneven growth in trade had not only had an unsettling effect of world trade, but has also required developing states to take out loans to support their development. Strange suggests that in the long term such an approach is not sustainable, especially if the benefits of international trade are unevenly enjoyed. This leads Strange to suggest four international economic policies to alleviate these problems: the stabilisation of commodity prices to reduce the risks of underdeveloped states' trade; the opening of developed markets (the reduction of tariffs) to the products of the developing states; the use of developed states agricultural surpluses to aid industrial development in poorer states; and international exchange rate co-ordination to stabilise the terms of trade. As so often Strange identifies not a lack of policy choice in developed state inaction but rather a lack of political will.

Keywords: Production; Trade; Economic Development

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Production, Trade, 1960's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1962

Review of: J.L Allen Soviet Economic Power

Strange, Susan. Economica 28, no. 109 (1961): 98-99.

Strange challenges the implicit assertion by the author that the interpretation of Soviet interest, or its choice of the means to an end, is static. She also doubts the ascription by the author of Finnish subservience to the Soviet Union as being solely one of economic dependence rather than strategic vulnerability. As one would expect Strange dismisses mono-causality, as she continues to do in all her work.

Keywords: Political Economy; Security; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Political Economy, Security, 1960's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1961

The Commonwealth and the Sterling Area

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1959, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 24-44. London: Stevens, 1959.

Strange discusses the problem of sterling's link with the politics of the Commonwealth, the interactions between the sterling area and the rest of the world economy and policy responses to national pressures. Interestingly she considers the reciprocal arrangements for dollar holding and settlement in London by the Commonwealth nations as approaching a 'socialist' ideal in attempting to provide funds, each to their need, from each as their ability warrants. In addition, Strange is critical of the separation of the national from the international in the analysis of international relations, a theme to which she would return repeatedly.

Keywords: Money and Finance; Monetary Policy; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Money and Finance, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1959

The Soviet Trade Weapon

Strange, Susan. London: Phoenix House, 1959.

This pamphlet appeared in Background Books series. Taking a rather optimistic (though at that time widespread view) of the Soviet Bloc’s economic situation vis-à-vis the West, Strange concludes that Soviet economic (and political) influence is reliant on economic ‘trouble-spots’ and the aversion by many developing states to the West’s recent history of colonialism. This leads her to suggest that money then spent on military aid might be better spent helping developing countries deal with agricultural surplus capacity in the global a market, a theme she would return to in 'The Management of Surplus Capacity' (1979). Furthermore, the economic cycle in the developed states could be better managed to reduce the destabilising effects on primary producers. Thus political activism by the West could do much to counter the ‘war without weapons’ represented by the contemporary Soviet trade and aid policy.

Keywords: Production; Security; Trade; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Production, Security, Trade, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book

Year of Publication: 1959

The Strategic Trade Embargoes: Sense or Nonsense

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1958, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 55-73. London: Stevens, 1958.

Strange argues that the policy of strategic trade embargoes, a central plank of American cold war policy, should be reassessed in light of the launch of Sputnik and Britain's decision to part from the US on an embargo on trade with China. If as she suggests that post-Suez resentment towards America prompted the British relaxation of the embargo on China than surely this policy really played no real strategic role. Neither did it restrict Russian technological advance (as had been hoped), as Sputnik had shown. This leads to Strange to review the policy, as set out in the Battle Act as well as the political psychology underlying it, before arguing that it should be dispensed with, at has proved neither particularly useful not effective.

Keywords: Knowledge; Trade; Technology; Knowledge Production

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Knowledge, Trade, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1958

Suez and After

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1957, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 76-103. London: Stevens, 1957.

Noting that the underlying cause of the Suez crisis was distrust (or even fear of) Egyptian nationalism, Strange explores the idea of a Britain or France had a 'vital interest' in the international (rather than national control) of the Suez Canal. While the military costs might have been open to some debate before the action, she argues that the diplomatic problems that Suez prompted were easily foreseeable. Suez revealed the weakness of Britain and France as declining powers but overall Strange concludes that while some minor illusions had been shattered, the lessons of the crisis do not seem to have been appreciated by politicians in Britain or France.

Keywords: Security; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Security, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1957

Strains on NATO

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1956, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 21-41. London: Stevens, 1956.

Taking as her starting point that NATO is under strain, Strange argues that policy between NATO members is barely co-ordinated, that its membership is too skewered towards colonial powers and that therefore to outsiders (especially African and Asian states) it is seen as 'rich-mans-club'. However, while these problems might be alleviated by better diplomatic practice between the members, what is really required is representation for those states outside NATO in a forum with the dominant states (especially the US and UK). Strange concludes (on a theme to which she would often return) that inequality across the international system was itself disruptive and problematic and military alliances in the long run could do little to halt the pressure for some sort of change in the international system itself.

Keywords: Security; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Security, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1956

British Foreign Policy

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1955, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 35-53. London: Stevens, 1955.

Strange argues that a state whose power is waning is more liable to make fatal mistakes. British economic survival could only be made possible by conditions of expanding world trade, rising standards of living in export markets and a minimum of economic nationalism. Britain's future thus largely depends on the US, as she is no longer as essential as a market and supplier of capital as she once was to the members of the Commonwealth. As she notes, a small fall in American consumption led to a large cut in American imports from the Sterling Area, revealing this dependence. Strange suggests that as a result a major role of British foreign policy is to sustain the US's role in the international economy to ensure continued expansion and growth.

Keywords: Hegemony; Money and Finance; Trade; United Kingdom; United States; Economic Development

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Hegemony, Money and Finance, Trade, United Kingdom, United States, 1950's and earlier, Susan Strange
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1955

International Trade

Strange, Susan. In Money and Trade (A Background Special), edited by Wilfrid Eady, Bertrand Jouvenel, Susan Strange, 53-77. London: Batchworth Press, 1955.

Foregrounding the role of technology in the development of international trade, Strange discusses the difference between the theory of free trade and the actual patterns (and barriers) to international trade in the 1950s. This leads her to emphasise balance of payments problems linked to international monetary flows and political barriers to freer trade. Firmly arguing that expanding international trade will aid the poorest, Strange stresses the need for the rich countries to exploit their knowledge resources and allow manufacturing to progressively move to the under-developed areas of the international system.

Keywords: Knowledge; Money and Finance; Trade; Knowledge Production; Technology

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, , Editor: Bertrand Jouvenel and Editor: Susan Strange
Keywords: Knowledge, Money and Finance, Trade, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1955

The Economic Work of the United Nations

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1954, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 118-140. London: Stevens, 1954.

Strange argues that governments have increased power over domestic economic forces, and feel that this power is necessary and desirable. The UN has generated and publicised debates surrounding economic development, and led indirectly to 'point four programme' financial aid. But the US has in practice been given a paternal right to define and prioritise the economic goals of the UN, and set the agenda of acceptable economic policies. Strange suggests that freedom of trade in the dollar area is seen as much more important to the creation of world free trade than relations between other trading states. She argues that the UN has failed in its over-optimistic aims because the responsibility for economic stability and progress was assumed by its members to take precedence over a wider responsibility for international economic progress and stability.

Keywords: Hegemony; Money and Finance; United States; Economic Development; United Nations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Hegemony, Money and Finance, United States, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1954

The Atlantic Idea

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1953, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 1-19. London: Stevens, 1953.

Strange discusses the fears of the British and French that the ideals of NATO would break down and be replaced by the domination of US arms and money. Strange suggests that in a bi-polar world, the US must be conciliatory to her allies because it is neither possible, nor does the US wish, to further its ends by force. Strange recognises the force of 'the Atlantic idea' as part of this project, and notes its defining role for these debates.

Keywords: Hegemony; Knowledge; Security; United States; International Relations; Knowledge Production

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Hegemony, Knowledge, Security, United States, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1953

The Schumann Plan

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1951, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 109-130. London: Stevens, 1951.

Again discussing the linkage between politics and economics, Strange points out that economic integration could not be achieved without political control from above, that it is not possible for economic integration to move forward without the political will for it to happen. However the clear aim of the Schumann Plan was to redress the balance of economic power in Western Europe in favour of France and at the expense of Germany, rather than necessarily provide for increased integration.

Keywords: Europe; Hegemony; Political Economy; United States; International Relations; European Integration

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Europe, Hegemony, Political Economy, United States, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1951