Susan Strange's Work

This page contains the searchable annotated bibliography of all of Susan Strange’s academic writing. Edited by Christopher May, Randall Germain, and J.E. Spence Reprinted with permission. To download the annotated bibliography as a PDF, click here

For copyright reasons, this site does not host any of Strange’s work, or of Strange-influenced work. Where available, we have provided links to external sites that host these works.

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Defending Benign Mercantilism

Strange, Susan. Journal of Peace Research 25, no. 3 (1988): 273-277.

In this review of Robert Gilpin's Political Economy of International Relations, Strange again argues against 'Hegemonic Stability Theory', see 'The persistent myth of lost hegemony' (1987), but has started to develop a theory of transnational empire to explain the structural power of the United States. Part of this argument is the increasing non-territoriality of structural power, which is developed in a number of works below.

Keywords: Hegemony; Structural Power, Power; Theory; Trade

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Hegemony, Structural Power, Power, Theory, Trade, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1988

States and Markets

Strange, Susan. London: Printer Publishers, 1988.

Although subtitled 'An Introduction...' to IPE, this represents the only book length discussion of Strange's theory of the four dimensions of power in IPE. It is at once an introduction to the subject and a forceful agenda setting exercise for further research. As such, though often appearing on undergraduate course reading lists, this is Strange's defining book, one about which the rest of her work revolves. Strange discusses her ideas on theory building and methodology as well as the four structures of power in the international political economy: security, finance, production and knowledge. This discussion is mobilised around the balance of authority and markets and the questions of value preferences, and of course 'cui bono?' (who benefits?). She then applies this analysis to a number of 'secondary structures'. Those who dismiss this as 'merely an introductory text' have completely missed the point! Prologue reprinted in: Authority and Markets: Susan Strange’s Writings on International Political Economy, edited by Roger Tooze and Christopher May. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.

Keywords: Foundational Work; Political Economy; Structural Power, Power; Theory; Authority vs Markets

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Foundational Work, Political Economy, Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book

Year of Publication: 1988

The Future of the American Empire

Strange, Susan. Journal of International Affairs 42, no. 1 (1988): 1-17.

Strange argues that increasingly power in the international political economy is not territorially defined, and what has emerged is an empire that is not territorially based, and secondly is controlled by information-rich US corporations. However while she call this the 'American Empire' her argument is (self-avowedly) close to an international Gramscian 'historical bloc' analysis. Thus the controlling bureaucracy of this empire while based on American values and culture is not necessarily staffed by Americans. This argument is carried further in 'Towards a Theory of Transnational Empire' (1989).

Keywords: Hegemony; Knowledge; Structural Power, Power; Knowledge Production; Transnational Corporations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Hegemony, Knowledge, Structural Power, Power, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1988

The Persistent Myth of Lost Hegemony: Reply to Milner and Snyder 'Lost Hegemony?'

Strange, Susan. International Organisation 42, no. 4 (1988): 751-752.

In reference to (1987) there was a brief methodological exchange in the pages of International Organisation which while essentially inconclusive, offered a brief clue to Strange's attitude to empirical evidence. Though she originally cited empirical data, in response to the criticism from Milner and Snyder that this evidence left her arguments unproved, Strange answered that the real evidence to prove her argument empirically would be too difficult to collect, though in theory it could be possible to compile. What seems clear from this exchange, is that Strange is not dealing with 'evidence' in its strict form and has a permissive view towards its acceptability.

Keywords: Hegemony; Structural Power, Power; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Hegemony, Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1988

The Persistent Myth of Lost Hegemony

Strange, Susan. International Organisation 41, no. 4 (1987): 551-574.

Strange's classic attack of the 'declinist school' in international relations. Once she has discussed the more 'sociological' reasons for American academics holding this view (of which the most powerful/cynical is that it is essentially a convenient denial of responsibility by Americans for their effect on the international system), Strange goes on to elaborate the four structures of power in IPE. This exposition closely parallels (though in a brief form) the arguments that appear in States and Markets (1988). Strange again identifies the American domestic political process (and constitutional structure) as being the root of many of international problems. Strange suggests that the domestic and international cannot be separated analytically, and her structural analysis of power explains the effects of American domestic politics on the international political economy. An earlier version was given in a conference paper presented to the 30th Annual Conference of the Japan Association of International Relations in Tokyo, October 1986. Reprinted in: Authority and Markets: Susan Strange’s Writings on International Political Economy. Roger Tooze and Christopher May, editors. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.

Keywords: Foundational Work; Hegemony; Structural Power, Power; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Foundational Work, Hegemony, Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1987

Casino Capitalism

Strange, Susan. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1986.

Strange argues that uncertainty and risk in the financial sector/structure have provoked major economic disturbances in the last twenty or so years. This work represents a detailed sectoral history and analysis which argues against many of the proposed solutions to the international economic crisis she identifies. Strange argues that the United States must once again take up the leadership role (which it enjoys by virtue of economic preponderance) and more radically suggests that in the future financial regulation of credit creating agencies should not be a territorially based jurisdiction, but based on the currencies themselves wherever the credit transactions take place. Using her analysis, locating and understanding 'key decisions' in one sector/structure of power in the international political economy, Strange shows how disruption has spread to affect the other structures, and concludes with suggestions for how constitutional and governmental changes in the United States would benefit the international system. Alongside States and Markets (1988) and Rival States, Rival Firms: Competition for world market shares (with John M. Stopford and John S. Henley, 1991) this represents a major part of the influential core of Strange's work on international political economy. Reprinted, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997.

Keywords: Foundational Work; Money and Finance; Theory; General Framework

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Foundational Work, Money and Finance, Theory, 1980's, Susan Strange
Source and Medium: Book

Year of Publication: 1986

Comment on David T. Llewellyn 'International Monetary System Since 1972: Structural Change and Financial Innovation': pp. 14-47

Strange, Susan. In Problems of International Money, 1972-85, edited by Michael Posner, 44-45. Washington D.C.: IMF/London: ODI, 1986.

Identifying herself as a 'political realist', Strange stresses the need to accord sufficient weight to the 'realities' of power and the profit motive when examining the interaction of authority and markets in the international financial system. Thus while Llewellyn's paper is well received, he is too polite about the problems policy makers and economic 'experts' have been unable to solve.

Keywords: Authority; Markets; Money and Finance; Theory; Realism

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Michael Posner
Keywords: Authority, Markets, Money and Finance, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1986

Politics, Trade and Money

Strange, Susan. In Europe, America and the World Economy, edited by Loukas Tsoukalis, 243-255. Oxford: Basil Blackwell for the College of Europe, 1986.

Strange identifies two main obstructions to a constructive dialogue between the United States and Europe over international trade: America's lack of interest in maintaining a steady provision of credit to the interdependent international system; and Europe's inability to take responsibility for its own defence and security, and therefore reducing its dependence on America. This leads Strange to conclude that the U.S. has abused rather than lost its power in the international economy, refusing to allow the separation the international risks from domestic bank activities in developing countries, taking no notice of the Brandt's commissions call for a independent multilateral financial institution, and not taking the role of international lender of last resort. This refusal led to the upheavals which the system was then experiencing. Underlying these problems is the lack of political will on behalf of the United States government to act as a responsible hegemon. Thus the problem is not declining US power, but rather the lack of a counter-balance from Europe, a theme she first explored at length in 'Cuba and After' (1963) and to which she would return to in 'The persistence of problems in EC-US relations: conflicts of perception?' (1989) and elsewhere.

Keywords: Money and Finance; Hegemony; Europe; United States

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Loukas Tsoukalis
Keywords: Money and Finance, Hegemony, Europe, United States, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1986

Reaganomics, the Third World and the Future

Strange, Susan. In Third World Affairs 1986, edited by Raana Gauhar, 65-72. London: Third World Foundation for Social and Economic Studies, 1986.

Strange starts this chapter with the suggestion that like Mark Twain reports of the demise of American hegemony are premature. She then presents a short history of U.S. economic policy towards the Third World and the global system as a whole. This allows her to emphasise the structural power approach that she would develop at some length in States and Markets (1988) and argue that while many on the left see America's influence as entirely malign, she sees good and bad in its domination of the international system. She concludes the main problem is uncertainty regarding U.S. policy, which while leading to rational responses (risk-avoiding devices, such as hedging) in the financial structure. However, these responses also bring with them a shadow (speculation, gambling and both political and economic recklessness) which produces further financial instability for the system and most particularly Third World countries.

Keywords: Hegemony; Money and Finance; Structural Power, Power

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Raana Gauhar
Keywords: Hegemony, Money and Finance, Structural Power, Power, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1986

Supranationals and the State

Strange, Susan. In States in History, edited by John A. Hall, 289-305. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986.

To some extent a precursor to Rival States, Rival Firms: Competition for world market shares (with John Stopford, 1991) which concludes that there is a functional convergence between states and TNCs. The central argument is that transnationals - TNCs and international organisations - both support and undermine states at the same time. There is a paradoxical symbiosis, that is under-examined due to most writers discussing either support roles or undermining roles. In addition there has been a shift in the basis of economic power, from land and power to capital and knowledge. Clearly this part of Strange's larger argument about the transnational power of capital and American TNCs, and represents the beginning of a shift away from the position suggesting a final authority of states over transnationals in Paths to International Political Economy (1984).

Keywords: Corporations; Knowledge; Theory; Corporations; Knowledge Production

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: John A. Hall
Keywords: Corporations, Knowledge, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1986

The Bondage of Liberal Economics

Strange, Susan. SAIS Review 6, no. 1 (1986): 25-38.

Here Strange returns again to the inadequacy of economics in its analysis of international trade, made in 'International Trade' (1955) and 'International money matters' (1970), and elsewhere. Noting the contradictions between economic models of international trade and what was actually happening in the international economy, Strange argues economists have failed to appreciate that trade is only a secondary international structure. This leads her to briefly lay out the argument that would be developed at more length in States and Markets (1988). Most importantly she firmly concludes that international economics is an ideological construction which serves the interests of the powerful states, most significantly the United States.

Keywords: Economics; Hegemony; Theory; Trade; General Framework

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Economics, Hegemony, Theory, Trade, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1986

International Political Economy: The Story so Far and the Way Ahead

Strange, Susan. In An International Political Economy (International Political Economy Yearbook No. 1), edited by W. Ladd Hollist, F. LaMond Tullis, 13-25. Boulder: Westview Press, 1985.

After noting again the essential role of economic historians in the study and understanding of the international political economy, Strange builds on an appreciation of the value of development economists, a plea for the re-inclusion of values into the study of IPE. This in the main is because they are already tacitly included, but there is little engagement with the economist's prioritising of efficiency or the International Relations scholar's of peace. Part of the job of IPE must be to make clear what choices these priorities represent and to discuss alternatives and different value hierarchies.

Keywords: Political Economy; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: W. Ladd Hollist and Editor: F. LaMond Tullis
Keywords: Political Economy, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1985

Interpretations of a Decade

Strange, Susan. In The Political Economy of International Money: In Search of a New Order, edited by Loukas Tsoukalis, 1-43. London: RIIA/Sage Publications Ltd, 1985.

After reiterating her criticism of over-specialisation in the study of international economic relations, Strange goes on to discuss the shortcomings of a large spectrum of perspectives on economic development. The bulk of this article subsequently appeared as chapter three of Casino Capitalism (1986).

Keywords: Theory; Economic Development

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Loukas Tsoukalis
Keywords: Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1985

Protectionism - Why Not?

Strange, Susan. The World Today 41, nos. 8 and 9 (1985): 148-150.

In this short polemic piece Strange argues that states should adopt a pragmatic approach to protectionism (mimicking the practices, if not the ideology of America). With the growth of international production and bi-lateralism it is little wonder that, despite the GATT's claims to the contrary, the actual figures on international trade suggest the overall protectionism has little effect on growth. This suggests that the state (and politically driven preferential procurement) can still play a role in the national links to international trade without fear of disaster.

Keywords: Trade

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Trade, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1985

Protectionism and World Politics

Strange, Susan. International Organisation 39, no. 2 (1985): 233-259.

In discussing the question of protectionism Strange contends that her structural understanding of the international political economy - with four structures; security, production, finance, knowledge - shows that concerns about trade 'inefficiencies' as a disruptive element within the international system miss the real problem. She argues that trade is only a 'secondary structure' which is influenced and shaped by the primary structures. The disruption in the international system and trade relations is in fact a symptom of disruptions within the primary structures, and especially the financial structure. This article represents a forceful precursor to States and Markets (1988) and is the first time that Strange lays out in its fullest form her structural approach to power within the international political economy, including primary and secondary structures. Reprinted in: Authority and Markets: Susan Strange’s Writings on International Political Economy, edited by Roger Tooze and Christopher May. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.

Keywords: Political Economy; Structural Power, Power; Trade; General Framework

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Political Economy, Structural Power, Power, Trade, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1985

The Poverty of Multilateral Economic Diplomacy

Strange, Susan. In Diplomacy at the United Nations, edited by Geoff Berridge, Anthony Jennings, 109-129. London: Macmillan Press, 1985.

After reviewing the four values authority might pursue - wealth, security, justice and freedom (an argument developed at more length in States and Markets (1988), she uses these value choices to interrogate the three main paradigms used to think about the international political economy, liberalism, structuralism and nationalism. She then examines UN economic multilateralism utilising an eclectic combination of all three perspectives and concludes that as each approach continues to look to international organisation to sustain the values it emphasises, despite its failings economic multilateralism is likely to continue to be regarded as a worthwhile enterprise.

Keywords: Structural Power, Power; Theory; General Framework; United Nations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: Geoff Berridge and Editor: Anthony Jennings
Keywords: Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1985

Conclusion

Strange, Susan. In Paths to International Political Economy, edited by Susan Strange. London: Allen and Unwin, 1984.

Strange then poses the question 'What about International Relations?' in her conclusion to Paths to International Political Economy (1984). After discussing the importance of the grounding in politics for economists and vice versa, Strange notes that radical theorists have concentrated too much on the production structure, and notes that the other three (finance, security and 'knowledge') are as important. However this is not developed further. She goes on to identify the state as still the central decision making body in the international political economy. She notes that even multinationals in the final analysis bow to the wishes of their home state. This view is in sharp contradiction to the transnational structural theory of power which would emerge over the next few years.

Keywords: Corporations; Structural Power, Power; Theory; International Relations; Transnational Corporations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Susan Strange
Keywords: Corporations, Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1984

GATT and the Politics of North-South Trade

Strange, Susan. Australian Outlook 38, no. 2 (1984): 106-110.

Strange identifies three 'shaky assumptions' underlying the call to revive the GATT negotiations, that protectionism was the main cause of the 1930s depression, that the GATT was a necessary condition of post-war recovery, and free trade was ever a widely followed 'norm'. However, though the alternatives are presented as a hegemonic system run by the US or a multilateral system managed through the GATT, Strange argues that the reality is a cob-web of bi-lateral agreements which accords with many people's desire to have their own state manage their affairs.

Keywords: International Institutions; Trade

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: International Institutions, Trade, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1984

On Money and World Politics

Strange, Susan, D.P. Calleo. In Paths to International Political Economy, edited by Susan Strange. London: Allen and Unwin, 1984.

Strange discusses 'Money and World Politics' criticising economists for supposing questions of values and power are questions of market 'imperfections' and not of central importance. The article then goes on to consider the balance of payments problem and how suggestions for addressing this 'problem' reveal theoretical standpoints. They also note the disruptive influence/effect of American policies on the financial structure. The article concludes with a plea for a return to more 'objective' analysis of global problems, not driven by government set academic objectives.

Keywords: Hegemony; Money and Finance; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, D.P. Calleo and Editor: Susan Strange
Keywords: Hegemony, Money and Finance, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1984

The Global Political Economy, 1959-1984

International Journal 39, no. 2 (1984): 267-283.

After discussing some terms she would like to see the back of (‘actors’, ‘issue-areas’), reviewing years of the Global Political Economy, Strange proposes four structures that condition change. These are Security, Production, Knowledge and Finance, and though at this point this is only used as a taxonomy for looking at changes in the GPE, it represents the first time the structures of her theory appear in their final configuration. Strange also stresses that while the four structures are not hierarchical, she believes it is disruptions in the financial structure that has caused most upheavals over the period examined.

Keywords: Money and Finance, Structural Power, Power

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Money and Finance, Structural Power, Power, 1980's, Susan Strange
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1984

The Global Political Economy, 1959-1984

Strange, Susan. International Journal 39, no. 2 (1984): 267-283.

After discussing some terms she would like to see the back of ('actors', 'issue-areas'), reviewing years of the Global Political Economy, Strange proposes four structures that condition change. These are Security, Production, Knowledge and Finance, and though at this point this is only used as a taxonomy for looking at changes in the GPE, it represents the first time the structures of her theory appear in their final configuration. Strange also stresses that while the four structures are not hierarchical, she believes it is disruptions in the financial structure that has caused most upheavals over the period examined.

Keywords: Money and Finance; Structural Power, Power

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Money and Finance, Structural Power, Power, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1984

Review of: C.F Bergsten The World Economic in the 1980s - Selected Papers (Toronto: D.C Heath, 1981)

Strange, Susan. International Journal 38, no. 2 (1983): 355-356.

Strange criticises Bergsten’s exaggeration of US decline in hegemonic power and absolution of the USA of bearing prime responsibility for the deteriorating economic situation. Indeed much of her work in the 1980s revolved round the dual need to recognise US responsibility for global economic crises, and the problem of such a responsibility being denied by the US (both policy makers and academics). Reprinted in: Authority and Markets: Susan Strange’s Writings on International Political Economy (edited by Roger Tooze & Christopher May) Basingstoke: PalgraveMacmillan 2002.

Key Terms: Hegemony

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Hegemony, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1983

Structures, Values and Risk in the Study of the International Political Economy

Strange, Susan. In Perspectives on Political Economy, edited by R.J. Barry Jones, 209-230. London: Francis Printer Journals, 1983.

In this article Strange argues for the centrality of questions surrounding the nature of risk and how it is mitigated, managed and transferred in the international economy. In addition she suggests five structures of power in IPE, noting that she is adding to the Marxist concept of a production structure. The others are the financial, security and knowledge structures she would continue to use as well as an element she termed the ‘welfare structure’. This fifth structure was to account for politically determined arrangements which allocate the risks to human life and contentment. The structural theory of States and Markets (1988) is emerging in this chapter, but is as yet not fully developed.

Keywords: Structural Power, Power; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: R.J. Barry Jones
Keywords: Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1983

The Credit Crisis: A European View

Strange, Susan. SAIS Review 3, no. 2 (1983): 171-181.

Strange here uses the term crisis, but notes that the implication that some sort of solution is imminent is less than certain. She suggests that the world economic crisis has three interrelated aspects: unemployment, ‘flagging trade’, and unstable money. As in ‘The Management of Surplus Capacity: Or how does theory stand up to protectionism 1970s style?’ (1979) she shows some scepticism to the arguments that demonise protectionism, and suggests this is an essentially ideological position that would not repay global implementation. After briefly rehearsing the global financial history of the previous decade, Strange suggests that financial regulation which in the last analysis is dependent on certain sovereign states, can never be disinterested. As she would argue in more extended analyses later, she sees the role of the American financial system as destabilising because of the priority it gives to the interests of the domestic political system. Indeed until the United States is willing to ‘lead’ the global system, instead of working in its own interest, those interests will be compromised. Strange, as she would do often in future works, suggests a pragmatic acceptance of American reach over the global system, and suggests a sort of civilising mission to educate them into responsible leadership.

Keywords: Europe; Hegemony; Money and Finance; United States

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Europe, Hegemony, United Staes, Money and Finance, 1980's
Source and Medium: Jounral Article

Year of Publication: 1983

Cave! Hic Dragones: A Critique of Regime Analysis

Strange, Susan. International Organisation 36, no. 2 (1982): 479-496.

Strange's classic critique of regime theory, often used as a touchstone for those regime-theorists wanting to make the point they recognise that there have been criticisms of their approach. As such it has at least a totemic importance. Strange argues for five shortcoming of regime theory: that it is a passing fad, is imprecise, has a value bias, is too static and is too state-centred. As in 'What is Economic Power, and Who has it?' (1975) the underlying history of bargains, which condition regimes are emphasised as being crucial to any understanding of the IPE. The rather brief structural power analysis conflates what Strange would come to term primary and secondary structures. Reprinted in: Authority and Markets: Susan Strange’s Writings on International Political Economy, edited by Roger Tooze and Christopher May. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.

Keywords: Foundational Work; Political Economy; Structural Power, Power; Theory; Regime Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Foundational Work, Political Economy, Strcutural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's, Susan Strange
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1982