Book Chapter

The United Nations and International Economic Relations

Strange, Susan. In The Evolving United Nations: A Prospect for Peace?, edited by Kenneth J. Twichet, 100-119. London: Europa Publications for the David Davies Memorial Institute of International Studies, 1971.

Contrasting a Unitarian ('one-world') or egalitarian vision of the United Nations mission with a reformist position, Strange argues that despite some early hopes that the UN might remake the global economy, its subsequent history has revealed it to be largely powerless over much of international economic relations. Where it has been able to influence the international economy this has been through symbolic actions rather than by direct intervention. Here, Strange stresses the political embeddedness of international markets, and relates the inability of the UN to intervene to the lack of any overarching international political authority, either represented by the UN or other international organisations.

Keywords: Political Economy; United Nations; International Economics

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Kenneth J. Twitchet
Keywords: Political Economy, 1970's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1971

The Meaning of Multilateral Surveillance

Strange, Susan. In International Organisation: World Politics: Studies in Economic and Social Agencies, edited by Robert W. Cox, 231-247. London: Macmillan, 1969.

Taking the relationship between debtor and creditor countries as her starting point Strange argues that multilateral surveillance is not as draconian as it is presented. She notes that military expenditure is seldom included in the requests for debtor country adjustments. Despite the international economic organisations’ role, states were still able to manipulate their creditors through political pressures. Interestingly, Strange notes with great prescience that while at the time states could still play this role, with the continuing internationalisation of money markets (and the emergent technologies that made such developments possible), this would in the future present a strategic problem for states’ governments. The approach she favoured was for the reduction of indebtedness to be borne not by the deficit countries but rather by the surplus countries. That is, the solution to the debt crisis was not more adjustment in the ‘Third World’, but was some form of debt forgiveness.

Keywords: International Institutions, Money and Finance

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Robert W. Cox
Keywords: International Institutions, Money and Finance, 1960's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1969

The Sterling Question

Strange, Susan. In Britain and the Common Market, edited by Anthony Moncrieff, 43-50. London, BBC, 1967.

In this text of a radio talk first broadcast on 19th February 1967, Strange summarises the arguments she made in The Sterling Problem and the Six (1967). Discussing the links between Britain and the European Community, she examines the international position of sterling in a time of monetary crisis. Noting both the lack of reserves held by the British government and Britain’s extra-European financial commitments, Strange argues that de Gaulle may be correct in thinking it is impossible for Britain to act ‘like good Europeans’. Thus, one proposed solution to the sterling problem, monetary association with Europe, would have little support on the Continent. Strange finally focuses on the British government’s economic philosophy and its lack of political will as the key problems; issues she would return to frequently, not least of all in her later criticisms of American foreign economic policy.

Keywords: Europe; Money and Finance; European Integration

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Anthony Moncrieff
Keywords: Europe, Money and Finance, 1960's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1967

Cuba and After

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1963, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 1-28. London: Stevens, 1963.

Resisting the prevailing 'informed' analysis that the Cuban Missile Crisis was more an apparent danger than a real one, Strange sides with the 'man in the street' to argue it was a very real moment of possible war and as such profoundly affected the US system of alliances. However, she also suggests that the immediate aftermath appears to have been a retreat into détente, rather than renewed confrontation. She then turns to survey the impact of the crisis on the various strands of the Western alliance(s), and concludes that the inability of Britain to choose between America and Europe is as much a product of an American inability to decide whether it is serious about an Atlantic Union or not. Interestingly as in her later work, Strange was concerned about the manner in which the US was a hegemonic power and the problem of political will when it was threatened outside its traditional regional sphere of domination, or by the needs of multilateralism in the international system.

Keywords: Hegemony; Security; United States; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Hegemony, Security, United States, 1960's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1963

Changing Trends in World Trade

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1962, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 139-158. London: Stevens, 1962.

Here Strange notes that since 1945 although manufacturing growth has accelerated expanding the trade between developed states there has been less growth in the demand for raw materials and agricultural goods. This distorted or uneven growth in trade had not only had an unsettling effect of world trade, but has also required developing states to take out loans to support their development. Strange suggests that in the long term such an approach is not sustainable, especially if the benefits of international trade are unevenly enjoyed. This leads Strange to suggest four international economic policies to alleviate these problems: the stabilisation of commodity prices to reduce the risks of underdeveloped states' trade; the opening of developed markets (the reduction of tariffs) to the products of the developing states; the use of developed states agricultural surpluses to aid industrial development in poorer states; and international exchange rate co-ordination to stabilise the terms of trade. As so often Strange identifies not a lack of policy choice in developed state inaction but rather a lack of political will.

Keywords: Production; Trade; Economic Development

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Production, Trade, 1960's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1962

The Commonwealth and the Sterling Area

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1959, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 24-44. London: Stevens, 1959.

Strange discusses the problem of sterling's link with the politics of the Commonwealth, the interactions between the sterling area and the rest of the world economy and policy responses to national pressures. Interestingly she considers the reciprocal arrangements for dollar holding and settlement in London by the Commonwealth nations as approaching a 'socialist' ideal in attempting to provide funds, each to their need, from each as their ability warrants. In addition, Strange is critical of the separation of the national from the international in the analysis of international relations, a theme to which she would return repeatedly.

Keywords: Money and Finance; Monetary Policy; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Money and Finance, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1959

The Strategic Trade Embargoes: Sense or Nonsense

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1958, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 55-73. London: Stevens, 1958.

Strange argues that the policy of strategic trade embargoes, a central plank of American cold war policy, should be reassessed in light of the launch of Sputnik and Britain's decision to part from the US on an embargo on trade with China. If as she suggests that post-Suez resentment towards America prompted the British relaxation of the embargo on China than surely this policy really played no real strategic role. Neither did it restrict Russian technological advance (as had been hoped), as Sputnik had shown. This leads to Strange to review the policy, as set out in the Battle Act as well as the political psychology underlying it, before arguing that it should be dispensed with, at has proved neither particularly useful not effective.

Keywords: Knowledge; Trade; Technology; Knowledge Production

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Knowledge, Trade, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1958

Suez and After

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1957, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 76-103. London: Stevens, 1957.

Noting that the underlying cause of the Suez crisis was distrust (or even fear of) Egyptian nationalism, Strange explores the idea of a Britain or France had a 'vital interest' in the international (rather than national control) of the Suez Canal. While the military costs might have been open to some debate before the action, she argues that the diplomatic problems that Suez prompted were easily foreseeable. Suez revealed the weakness of Britain and France as declining powers but overall Strange concludes that while some minor illusions had been shattered, the lessons of the crisis do not seem to have been appreciated by politicians in Britain or France.

Keywords: Security; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Security, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1957

Strains on NATO

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1956, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 21-41. London: Stevens, 1956.

Taking as her starting point that NATO is under strain, Strange argues that policy between NATO members is barely co-ordinated, that its membership is too skewered towards colonial powers and that therefore to outsiders (especially African and Asian states) it is seen as 'rich-mans-club'. However, while these problems might be alleviated by better diplomatic practice between the members, what is really required is representation for those states outside NATO in a forum with the dominant states (especially the US and UK). Strange concludes (on a theme to which she would often return) that inequality across the international system was itself disruptive and problematic and military alliances in the long run could do little to halt the pressure for some sort of change in the international system itself.

Keywords: Security; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Security, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1956

British Foreign Policy

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1955, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 35-53. London: Stevens, 1955.

Strange argues that a state whose power is waning is more liable to make fatal mistakes. British economic survival could only be made possible by conditions of expanding world trade, rising standards of living in export markets and a minimum of economic nationalism. Britain's future thus largely depends on the US, as she is no longer as essential as a market and supplier of capital as she once was to the members of the Commonwealth. As she notes, a small fall in American consumption led to a large cut in American imports from the Sterling Area, revealing this dependence. Strange suggests that as a result a major role of British foreign policy is to sustain the US's role in the international economy to ensure continued expansion and growth.

Keywords: Hegemony; Money and Finance; Trade; United Kingdom; United States; Economic Development

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Hegemony, Money and Finance, Trade, United Kingdom, United States, 1950's and earlier, Susan Strange
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1955

International Trade

Strange, Susan. In Money and Trade (A Background Special), edited by Wilfrid Eady, Bertrand Jouvenel, Susan Strange, 53-77. London: Batchworth Press, 1955.

Foregrounding the role of technology in the development of international trade, Strange discusses the difference between the theory of free trade and the actual patterns (and barriers) to international trade in the 1950s. This leads her to emphasise balance of payments problems linked to international monetary flows and political barriers to freer trade. Firmly arguing that expanding international trade will aid the poorest, Strange stresses the need for the rich countries to exploit their knowledge resources and allow manufacturing to progressively move to the under-developed areas of the international system.

Keywords: Knowledge; Money and Finance; Trade; Knowledge Production; Technology

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, , Editor: Bertrand Jouvenel and Editor: Susan Strange
Keywords: Knowledge, Money and Finance, Trade, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1955

The Economic Work of the United Nations

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1954, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 118-140. London: Stevens, 1954.

Strange argues that governments have increased power over domestic economic forces, and feel that this power is necessary and desirable. The UN has generated and publicised debates surrounding economic development, and led indirectly to 'point four programme' financial aid. But the US has in practice been given a paternal right to define and prioritise the economic goals of the UN, and set the agenda of acceptable economic policies. Strange suggests that freedom of trade in the dollar area is seen as much more important to the creation of world free trade than relations between other trading states. She argues that the UN has failed in its over-optimistic aims because the responsibility for economic stability and progress was assumed by its members to take precedence over a wider responsibility for international economic progress and stability.

Keywords: Hegemony; Money and Finance; United States; Economic Development; United Nations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Hegemony, Money and Finance, United States, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1954

The Atlantic Idea

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1953, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 1-19. London: Stevens, 1953.

Strange discusses the fears of the British and French that the ideals of NATO would break down and be replaced by the domination of US arms and money. Strange suggests that in a bi-polar world, the US must be conciliatory to her allies because it is neither possible, nor does the US wish, to further its ends by force. Strange recognises the force of 'the Atlantic idea' as part of this project, and notes its defining role for these debates.

Keywords: Hegemony; Knowledge; Security; United States; International Relations; Knowledge Production

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Hegemony, Knowledge, Security, United States, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1953

The Schumann Plan

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1951, edited by George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 109-130. London: Stevens, 1951.

Again discussing the linkage between politics and economics, Strange points out that economic integration could not be achieved without political control from above, that it is not possible for economic integration to move forward without the political will for it to happen. However the clear aim of the Schumann Plan was to redress the balance of economic power in Western Europe in favour of France and at the expense of Germany, rather than necessarily provide for increased integration.

Keywords: Europe; Hegemony; Political Economy; United States; International Relations; European Integration

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Europe, Hegemony, Political Economy, United States, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1951

Truman's Point Four

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1950, edited by W. Harold Dalgliesh, George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 264-288. London: Stevens, 1950.

Strange discusses Truman's fourth declared guiding rule of American foreign policy for the years 1949-1953, that 'Our aim should be to help the free peoples of the world, through their own efforts to produce more clothing, more materials for housing and more mechanical power to lighten their burdens', stressing the technical and international nature of future assistance. She notes that American 'internationalism' could be broken under the stresses of changing political and strategic circumstances. While the US needs to remain embedded within the international economy, the costs of technical co-operation are largely borne by the targeted Third World countries themselves. Strange points to the linkage between economics and politics, as a way of highlighting questions concerning the degree of freedom to use funds as recipients of US controlled aid and loans wish.

Keywords: Hegemony; United States; US Foreign Policy; International Relations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: W. Harold Dalgliesh, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: Hegemony, United States, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1950

Palestine and the UN

Strange, Susan. In Year Book of World Affairs 1949, edited by F. H. Soward, George W. Keeton, Georg Schwarzenberger, 151-168. London: Stevens, 1949.

Strange comments on the UN deliberations concerning the future of Palestine and highlights the central factor that gave the Zionists an in-built advantage at the assembly. While the Arabs were negotiating in a state that was essentially antipathetic to their struggle, their opposite numbers were surrounded by sympathisers and supporters both within and outside the organisation. She also discusses some of the limitations and problems with such negotiations within the forum of the UN, and alludes to structural impediments to the 'fair' settlement of differences.

Keywords: International Institutions; International Relations; United Nations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: F. H. Soward, Editor: George W. Keeton and Editor: Georg Schwarzenberger
Keywords: International Institutions, 1950's and earlier
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1949