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This page contains the searchable bibliography of Susan Strange’s academic work, academic and journalistic work that draws on Susan Strange’s theories and ideas. This bibliography remains a work in progress: if you have completed work, or know of works, that we should feature here, please let us know.

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The Bondage of Liberal Economics

Strange, Susan. SAIS Review 6, no. 1 (1986): 25-38.

Here Strange returns again to the inadequacy of economics in its analysis of international trade, made in 'International Trade' (1955) and 'International money matters' (1970), and elsewhere. Noting the contradictions between economic models of international trade and what was actually happening in the international economy, Strange argues economists have failed to appreciate that trade is only a secondary international structure. This leads her to briefly lay out the argument that would be developed at more length in States and Markets (1988). Most importantly she firmly concludes that international economics is an ideological construction which serves the interests of the powerful states, most significantly the United States.

Keywords: Economics; Hegemony; Theory; Trade; General Framework

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Economics, Hegemony, Theory, Trade, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1986

International Political Economy: The Story so Far and the Way Ahead

Strange, Susan. In An International Political Economy (International Political Economy Yearbook No. 1), edited by W. Ladd Hollist, F. LaMond Tullis, 13-25. Boulder: Westview Press, 1985.

After noting again the essential role of economic historians in the study and understanding of the international political economy, Strange builds on an appreciation of the value of development economists, a plea for the re-inclusion of values into the study of IPE. This in the main is because they are already tacitly included, but there is little engagement with the economist's prioritising of efficiency or the International Relations scholar's of peace. Part of the job of IPE must be to make clear what choices these priorities represent and to discuss alternatives and different value hierarchies.

Keywords: Political Economy; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: W. Ladd Hollist and Editor: F. LaMond Tullis
Keywords: Political Economy, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1985

Interpretations of a Decade

Strange, Susan. In The Political Economy of International Money: In Search of a New Order, edited by Loukas Tsoukalis, 1-43. London: RIIA/Sage Publications Ltd, 1985.

After reiterating her criticism of over-specialisation in the study of international economic relations, Strange goes on to discuss the shortcomings of a large spectrum of perspectives on economic development. The bulk of this article subsequently appeared as chapter three of Casino Capitalism (1986).

Keywords: Theory; Economic Development

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Loukas Tsoukalis
Keywords: Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1985

Protectionism - Why Not?

Strange, Susan. The World Today 41, nos. 8 and 9 (1985): 148-150.

In this short polemic piece Strange argues that states should adopt a pragmatic approach to protectionism (mimicking the practices, if not the ideology of America). With the growth of international production and bi-lateralism it is little wonder that, despite the GATT's claims to the contrary, the actual figures on international trade suggest the overall protectionism has little effect on growth. This suggests that the state (and politically driven preferential procurement) can still play a role in the national links to international trade without fear of disaster.

Keywords: Trade

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Trade, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1985

Protectionism and World Politics

Strange, Susan. International Organisation 39, no. 2 (1985): 233-259.

In discussing the question of protectionism Strange contends that her structural understanding of the international political economy - with four structures; security, production, finance, knowledge - shows that concerns about trade 'inefficiencies' as a disruptive element within the international system miss the real problem. She argues that trade is only a 'secondary structure' which is influenced and shaped by the primary structures. The disruption in the international system and trade relations is in fact a symptom of disruptions within the primary structures, and especially the financial structure. This article represents a forceful precursor to States and Markets (1988) and is the first time that Strange lays out in its fullest form her structural approach to power within the international political economy, including primary and secondary structures. Reprinted in: Authority and Markets: Susan Strange’s Writings on International Political Economy, edited by Roger Tooze and Christopher May. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.

Keywords: Political Economy; Structural Power, Power; Trade; General Framework

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Political Economy, Structural Power, Power, Trade, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1985

The Poverty of Multilateral Economic Diplomacy

Strange, Susan. In Diplomacy at the United Nations, edited by Geoff Berridge, Anthony Jennings, 109-129. London: Macmillan Press, 1985.

After reviewing the four values authority might pursue - wealth, security, justice and freedom (an argument developed at more length in States and Markets (1988), she uses these value choices to interrogate the three main paradigms used to think about the international political economy, liberalism, structuralism and nationalism. She then examines UN economic multilateralism utilising an eclectic combination of all three perspectives and concludes that as each approach continues to look to international organisation to sustain the values it emphasises, despite its failings economic multilateralism is likely to continue to be regarded as a worthwhile enterprise.

Keywords: Structural Power, Power; Theory; General Framework; United Nations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: Geoff Berridge and Editor: Anthony Jennings
Keywords: Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1985

Conclusion

Strange, Susan. In Paths to International Political Economy, edited by Susan Strange. London: Allen and Unwin, 1984.

Strange then poses the question 'What about International Relations?' in her conclusion to Paths to International Political Economy (1984). After discussing the importance of the grounding in politics for economists and vice versa, Strange notes that radical theorists have concentrated too much on the production structure, and notes that the other three (finance, security and 'knowledge') are as important. However this is not developed further. She goes on to identify the state as still the central decision making body in the international political economy. She notes that even multinationals in the final analysis bow to the wishes of their home state. This view is in sharp contradiction to the transnational structural theory of power which would emerge over the next few years.

Keywords: Corporations; Structural Power, Power; Theory; International Relations; Transnational Corporations

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Susan Strange
Keywords: Corporations, Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1984

GATT and the Politics of North-South Trade

Strange, Susan. Australian Outlook 38, no. 2 (1984): 106-110.

Strange identifies three 'shaky assumptions' underlying the call to revive the GATT negotiations, that protectionism was the main cause of the 1930s depression, that the GATT was a necessary condition of post-war recovery, and free trade was ever a widely followed 'norm'. However, though the alternatives are presented as a hegemonic system run by the US or a multilateral system managed through the GATT, Strange argues that the reality is a cob-web of bi-lateral agreements which accords with many people's desire to have their own state manage their affairs.

Keywords: International Institutions; Trade

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: International Institutions, Trade, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1984

On Money and World Politics

Strange, Susan, D.P. Calleo. In Paths to International Political Economy, edited by Susan Strange. London: Allen and Unwin, 1984.

Strange discusses 'Money and World Politics' criticising economists for supposing questions of values and power are questions of market 'imperfections' and not of central importance. The article then goes on to consider the balance of payments problem and how suggestions for addressing this 'problem' reveal theoretical standpoints. They also note the disruptive influence/effect of American policies on the financial structure. The article concludes with a plea for a return to more 'objective' analysis of global problems, not driven by government set academic objectives.

Keywords: Hegemony; Money and Finance; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, D.P. Calleo and Editor: Susan Strange
Keywords: Hegemony, Money and Finance, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1984

Paths to International Political Economy

Strange, Susan, editor. London: Allan and Unwin, 1984.

This is a collection of nine essays looking at various sectoral aspects to the study of IPE, together with a brief preface by Strange. In her preface Strange again singles out development economists, applied economists and economic historians and praises their openness to insights and evidence from other disciplines and sub-disciplines. Implicitly there is an epistemological argument here, against theoretical closure, though as in the majority of her writings this remains implicit.

Keywords: Theory

Contributor(s): Editor: Susan Strange
Keywords: Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Edited Volume

Year of Publication: 1984

The Global Political Economy, 1959-1984

International Journal 39, no. 2 (1984): 267-283.

After discussing some terms she would like to see the back of (‘actors’, ‘issue-areas’), reviewing years of the Global Political Economy, Strange proposes four structures that condition change. These are Security, Production, Knowledge and Finance, and though at this point this is only used as a taxonomy for looking at changes in the GPE, it represents the first time the structures of her theory appear in their final configuration. Strange also stresses that while the four structures are not hierarchical, she believes it is disruptions in the financial structure that has caused most upheavals over the period examined.

Keywords: Money and Finance, Structural Power, Power

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Money and Finance, Structural Power, Power, 1980's, Susan Strange
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1984

The Global Political Economy, 1959-1984

Strange, Susan. International Journal 39, no. 2 (1984): 267-283.

After discussing some terms she would like to see the back of ('actors', 'issue-areas'), reviewing years of the Global Political Economy, Strange proposes four structures that condition change. These are Security, Production, Knowledge and Finance, and though at this point this is only used as a taxonomy for looking at changes in the GPE, it represents the first time the structures of her theory appear in their final configuration. Strange also stresses that while the four structures are not hierarchical, she believes it is disruptions in the financial structure that has caused most upheavals over the period examined.

Keywords: Money and Finance; Structural Power, Power

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Money and Finance, Structural Power, Power, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1984

Review of: C.F Bergsten The World Economic in the 1980s - Selected Papers (Toronto: D.C Heath, 1981)

Strange, Susan. International Journal 38, no. 2 (1983): 355-356.

Strange criticises Bergsten’s exaggeration of US decline in hegemonic power and absolution of the USA of bearing prime responsibility for the deteriorating economic situation. Indeed much of her work in the 1980s revolved round the dual need to recognise US responsibility for global economic crises, and the problem of such a responsibility being denied by the US (both policy makers and academics). Reprinted in: Authority and Markets: Susan Strange’s Writings on International Political Economy (edited by Roger Tooze & Christopher May) Basingstoke: PalgraveMacmillan 2002.

Key Terms: Hegemony

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Hegemony, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1983

Structures, Values and Risk in the Study of the International Political Economy

Strange, Susan. In Perspectives on Political Economy, edited by R.J. Barry Jones, 209-230. London: Francis Printer Journals, 1983.

In this article Strange argues for the centrality of questions surrounding the nature of risk and how it is mitigated, managed and transferred in the international economy. In addition she suggests five structures of power in IPE, noting that she is adding to the Marxist concept of a production structure. The others are the financial, security and knowledge structures she would continue to use as well as an element she termed the ‘welfare structure’. This fifth structure was to account for politically determined arrangements which allocate the risks to human life and contentment. The structural theory of States and Markets (1988) is emerging in this chapter, but is as yet not fully developed.

Keywords: Structural Power, Power; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: R.J. Barry Jones
Keywords: Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1983

The Credit Crisis: A European View

Strange, Susan. SAIS Review 3, no. 2 (1983): 171-181.

Strange here uses the term crisis, but notes that the implication that some sort of solution is imminent is less than certain. She suggests that the world economic crisis has three interrelated aspects: unemployment, ‘flagging trade’, and unstable money. As in ‘The Management of Surplus Capacity: Or how does theory stand up to protectionism 1970s style?’ (1979) she shows some scepticism to the arguments that demonise protectionism, and suggests this is an essentially ideological position that would not repay global implementation. After briefly rehearsing the global financial history of the previous decade, Strange suggests that financial regulation which in the last analysis is dependent on certain sovereign states, can never be disinterested. As she would argue in more extended analyses later, she sees the role of the American financial system as destabilising because of the priority it gives to the interests of the domestic political system. Indeed until the United States is willing to ‘lead’ the global system, instead of working in its own interest, those interests will be compromised. Strange, as she would do often in future works, suggests a pragmatic acceptance of American reach over the global system, and suggests a sort of civilising mission to educate them into responsible leadership.

Keywords: Europe; Hegemony; Money and Finance; United States

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Europe, Hegemony, United Staes, Money and Finance, 1980's
Source and Medium: Jounral Article

Year of Publication: 1983

Cave! Hic Dragones: A Critique of Regime Analysis

Strange, Susan. International Organisation 36, no. 2 (1982): 479-496.

Strange's classic critique of regime theory, often used as a touchstone for those regime-theorists wanting to make the point they recognise that there have been criticisms of their approach. As such it has at least a totemic importance. Strange argues for five shortcoming of regime theory: that it is a passing fad, is imprecise, has a value bias, is too static and is too state-centred. As in 'What is Economic Power, and Who has it?' (1975) the underlying history of bargains, which condition regimes are emphasised as being crucial to any understanding of the IPE. The rather brief structural power analysis conflates what Strange would come to term primary and secondary structures. Reprinted in: Authority and Markets: Susan Strange’s Writings on International Political Economy, edited by Roger Tooze and Christopher May. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.

Keywords: Foundational Work; Political Economy; Structural Power, Power; Theory; Regime Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Foundational Work, Political Economy, Strcutural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's, Susan Strange
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1982

Europe and the United States: The Transatlantic Aspects of Inflation

Strange, Susan. In The Politics of Inflation: A Comparative Analysis, edited by Richard Medley, 65-76. New York: Pergamon Press, 1982.

This short article discusses the international financial sector and the interaction between American monetary policy and European exchange rates, monetary policy and the then new European Monetary System. While containing little explication of structural power, being more of an historical overview, the article is of interest for Strange's concluding discussion of the reasons for American domination of the international financial structure. From these empirical reasons, there is a hint of the structural analysis that was implicitly being developed, not least of all because much of the evidence she cites re-emerges in later works regarding American economic hegemony.

Keywords: Hegemony; Money and Finance; Structural Power, Power

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Richard Medley
Keywords: Hegemony, Money and Finance, Structural Power, Power, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1982

Looking Back - But Mostly Forward

Strange, Susan. Millennium: Journal of International Relations 11, no. 1 (1982): 38-49.

In this survey article, Strange looks back across the first ten years of Millennium to examine the development of International Relations, although as she makes plain she prefers the term International Studies. Having seen the field expand from a focus on the foreign polices of various states, she maps the increasing interest in the international system itself. However, she then argues that what is now needed is a further development of research into the structures of this system. This acts as a useful complement to the final section of ‘Cave! Hic Dragones: A Critique of Regime Analysis' (1982) giving a discipline based context for her arguments regarding the development of her research programme for International Political Economy.

Keywords: Political Economy; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Political Economy, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1982

Still an Extraordinary Power: America's Role in the Global Monetary System (Paper 3) (with discussants section)

Strange, Susan. In The Political Economy of Interdependence and Domestic Monetary Relations, edited by Raymond E. Lomra and Willard E. Witte, 73-93. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1982.

A paper delivered to a conference on international monetary relations. As well as considering power in the financial markets, Strange also makes a provisional (in light of her later work) analysis of structural power in the international political economy more generally. This analysis therefore widens out from an initial discussion of power in a specific sector (here the financial system) to examine the power of the U.S. more generally. While this includes elements of the later four dimensions - the idea of the authority/market balance and the security structure - her arguments here are not fully developed, as is evident from the rather heated discussion between her and the discussants (Robert Z. Alibar and Robert Solomon) that is reproduced following the main paper. A central part of the dispute is her refusal to separate out politics and economics, and define power in a narrow way, leading to veiled accusations of a lack of rigour, a not unfamiliar criticism.

Keywords: Authority; Hegemony; Structural Power, Power; Markets; Money and Finance; Political Economy

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: Raymond E. Lombra and Editor: Willard E. Witte
Keywords: Authority, Hegemony, Structural Power, Power, Markets, Money and Finance, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1982

The Politics of Economics: A Sectoral Analysis

Strange, Susan. In Economic Issues and the Atlantic Community, edited by Wolfram F. Hanrieder, 15-26. New York: Praeger, 1982.

Strange here proposes a structural approach that is implied by her argument that an analysis of the global political economy must be concerned with its ‘environment’. However, while suggesting three of her four later structures - here, security, monetary and production structures - she also includes a number of other structures - transport, trade, communication - that would later become in her schema, secondary structures. Strange repeats her critique of the recent history of the discipline of IPE before suggesting that a need for sectoral analysis seems to be gaining currency. She briefly discusses the steel and aerospace sectors, to argue for the need to engage in a structuralist analysis of political economy. She also suggests that the ‘bargains’ that IPE should be concerned with include those between firms and governments and those between labour and firms. That is, she is arguing for an analysis that widens its analysis to include all sorts of non-state actors, and recognition of the global nature of the political economy.

Keywords: Production; Structural Power, Power; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Wolfram F. Hanrieder
Keywords: Production, Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1980

Reactions to Brandt. Popular Acclaim and Academic Attack

Strange, Susan. International Studies Quarterly 25, no. 2 (1981): 328-342.

Strange’s ‘review of the reviews’ draws two distinctions between reactions to the Brandt Report - American and European, popular and academic. Her discussion briefly outlines the ‘global Keynsianism’ aspects of the report before noting the criticisms that were levelled at it. After noting that in the academy many of the analyses of the problems and ‘pie in the sky’ solutions were nothing new, her final lament is that the report continues to accept the curative value of research and knowledge, set aside from the political process. She concludes by arguing that the report cannot be safely dispensed with as whatever its faults and shortcomings it identifies major problems that will continue to beset the global system without some sort of political determination to address the problem of mal-distribution of welfare. The recognition of the importance of global political processes continues to be a central theme in her work.

Keywords: Political Economy; Theory; International Economics

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Poltical Economy, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1981

The International Politics of Surplus Capacity: Competition for Market Shares in the World

Strange, Susan, Roger Tooze, editors. London: Allen and Unwin, 1981.

This is a collection of 17 essays resulting from a conference held by the International Political Economy Group of the BISA, together with an editorial overview of theoretical approaches to IPE and a conclusion concerning the agreements and differences among the contributors. Writing with Tooze, Strange notes that it is not intended to dispense with the ‘insights’ of the realists, but it is necessary to widen their approach considerably. Any analysis should start by recognising the key historical bargains that were made within the economic structure. But the editors are not sure of the present possibility of an all embracing theory of international political economy. They conclude: there is a lessening possibility of dividing off the national from the international; any study of international relations (political or economic) must take account of values to avoid sterility in the analysis of outcomes; a structural analysis is not necessarily incompatible with realism; and IPE can only be meaningful where it builds on international economic history. Strange here identifies the following structures in international society: security, finance, distribution of knowledge, provision of welfare, transport services and communications; exchange and employment structures, without extensive analysis.

Keywords: Political Economy; Structural Power, Power; Theory; Realism

Contributor(s): Editor: Susan Strange and Editor: Roger Tooze
Keywords: Political Economy, Structural Power, Power, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Edited Volume

Year of Publication: 1981

The World's Money: Expanding the Agenda for Research

Strange, Susan. International Journal 36, no. 4 (1981): 691-712.

After a survey of current modes of thought, both academic and practitioner, Strange concludes that while much analysis can usefully illuminate the mechanisms of the global monetary system, there is little attempt ally this to a consideration how the system links up with and effects the values of and outcomes in a globalised society. She wants work on the international monetary system to go beyond a mere mechanical explanation and to move towards a more political analysis (which would also include an assessment of the impact of technology on global finance). In this she compares the study of the financial system unfavourably with the increasing sophisticated account of the global ecological system. Strange also briefly touches on the creation of credit and the transfer of risk which would be taken up subsequently in 'The Credit Crisis: A European View' (1983) and 'Structures, Values and Risk in the Study of the International Political Economy' (1983).

Keywords: Money and Finance; Theory

Contributor(s): Susan Strange
Keywords: Money and Finance, Theory, 1980's
Source and Medium: Journal Article

Year of Publication: 1981

Germany and the World Monetary System

Strange, Susan. In West Germany: A European and Global Power, edited by Wilfrid L. Kohl and Georgio Basevi, 45-62. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1980.

Strange suggests that for any major state in the global system, such as Germany there are five roles that could be adopted by its government: ‘leader of the system’, ‘obedient ally’, ‘bigemonist partner’, ‘lone ranger’ or ‘leader of the opposition’. After discussing recent developments in the political economy of German and Europe, Strange suggests that it is time for Germany to consider a role more like that adopted briefly by De Gaulle’s France in the early 1960s, that of ‘leader of the opposition’. Essentially, Strange suggests that increasingly Germany must find the political will to match its growing economic importance in the global system.

Keywords: Europe; Money and Finance

Contributor(s): Susan Strange, Editor: Wilfrid L Kohl and Ediotor: Georgio Basevi
Keywords: Europe, Money and Finance, 1980's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1980

Debt and Default in the International Political Economy

Strange, Susan. In Debt and the Less Developed Countries, edited by Jonathan David Aronson, 7-26. Boulder: Westview Press, 1979.

Explicitly linking back to 'Debts, Defaulters and Development' (1967) Strange examines the contemporary political economy of international debt, but also seeks to put this situation into a longer historical context than merely the previous ten years. Suggesting that states can choose to grow by direction (the socialist route) or via debt, she argues that recently the combination of the welfare state and more complex credit system has allowed many states to reduce the debt risk they explicitly face and therefore expand through the extensive use of credit. In the second part of the chapter she places the recent debt crises into the context of international credit since the mid-nineteenth century, and concludes that despite the supposed risks of default, historically the best growth rates have been in those countries extended the greatest credit (in Latin America). Furthermore, provided it is well managed there is nothing to indicate that a larger pool of credit (and therefore indebtedness) is any more problematic than a smaller pool, explicitly modifying her conclusion regarding the links between risky loans and political conflict in 'Debts, Defaulters and Development'.

Keywords: Money and Finance

Contributor(s): Susan Strange and Editor: Johnathan David Aronson
Keywords: Money and Finance, 1970's
Source and Medium: Book Chapter

Year of Publication: 1979